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ESP - MOSFET Solid State Relays =20
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Elliott Sound Products
MOSFET =
Relays
MOSFET Solid State Relays Rod Elliott - =
=A9 2012
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Articles Index Main Index
Contents =20
Introduction =20
Solid-State relays (SSRs) for AC have been around for as long as the =
first=20
SCRs and TRIACs became available. However, none of these early devices =
was=20
suitable for use with audio signals, because of gross distortion around =
the=20
zero-crossing point of the waveform. MOSFET based SSRs have existed from =
around=20
1984, when a patent was taken out by International Rectifier Corporation =
for a=20
MOSFET circuit that could handle AC with very low distortion. [1 ]. =
It is not known if this is the earliest example, but it's probably =
close.=20
There are any number of SSRs available that are suitable for DC, but=20
comparatively few low-distortion types that can handle the high =
AC=20
voltages and currents that are typical of high power amplifiers. Those=20
commercial devices that might be electrically suitable will most likely =
do some=20
serious damage to your bank account. There are a many that can handle up =
to=20
around 2.5A at voltages as high as 600V, but comparatively few that can =
handle=20
the 30-40A or so that is needed for a high power amplifier driving low =
impedance=20
loads.=20
While conventional relays can be used, they have a small problem ... =
when a=20
high power amplifier fails and the output goes DC, there could be 100V =
or more=20
with a load impedance of perhaps 4 ohms or less. Breaking 100V at 25A DC =
is a=20
very difficult job for a relay, because the DC allows a substantial arc =
to be=20
created across the contacts.=20
This arc is very difficult to stop, and the only way to actually =
protect the=20
speaker is to earth the normally closed contact so that the arc is =
connected to=20
the power supply common rail (earth/ ground). The relay will be =
destroyed, but=20
the speakers will (probably) survive. Most mains rated =
electro-mechanical relays=20
are limited to around 30V DC, but even with this seemingly low voltage =
it is=20
still likely that the relay will be damaged if it ever has to protect =
the=20
speakers.
Figure 1 - Conventional Relay Wiring
The above shows the wiring scheme that must be used to protect =
the=20
loudspeaker. The earth connection is often neglected in 'protection' =
circuits=20
shown on the Net, and the end result is that while it may happily pass =
your=20
basic tests, it will likely fail when you really need it due to the DC =
arc.=20
Perhaps due to the known problems with electro-mechanical relays, =
there seems=20
to be some interest in solid state relays on audio forum sites, but =
while some=20
of the information is actually quite good, there are many misconceptions =
and=20
often a failure to understand the things that can go wrong.
Note that the DC detector and control circuit (not shown - see =
Project=20
33 for an example) must be connected directly to the=20
amplifier's output. If it's connected after the relay, fault =
induced DC=20
will only be present when the relay is closed, so your speakers =
will be=20
subjected to repeated pulses as the relay closes, DC is sensed, =
and the=20
relay opens again. This process will continue until you switch the =
amp=20
off. When the detector is connected to the amp output, the =
relay=20
will never close because the fault condition is detected before =
the=20
detector attempts to connect the speaker.
1 MOSFET Relay Principle Of Operation =20
The general idea of an AC SSR is shown in Figure 2. Two N-Channel =
switching=20
MOSFETs are used, with their sources and gates joined. The signal and =
load are=20
connected to each of the drain terminals - it doesn't matter which is =
which,=20
because the 'switch' is symmetrical. =20
With no voltage between the gate and source terminals, the MOSFETs =
are off,=20
so no current flows. Depending on the MOSFETs used, they will conduct =
fully when=20
the gate-source voltage exceeds around 7 Volts. It is always a good idea =
to=20
provide 10-12V gate drive to ensure that they always turn on fully. The =
zener=20
diode you see is to protect the delicate insulation between the gate and =
MOSFET=20
channel.=20
The gate insulation is typically rated for a maximum of around =
=B120V. Even a=20
little bit of stray capacitance or resistance (moisture on the PCB for =
example)=20
can easily allow the voltage to rise to destructive levels because of =
the very=20
high impedance, and the zener is mandatory.=20
While the concept is very simple, in practice there may be quite a =
lot of=20
additional circuitry needed because the control circuit must generally =
be=20
completely isolated from the switching MOSFETs. Two complete circuits =
are needed=20
for stereo, even if they are driven by the same detector. This is =
because the=20
two pairs of MOSFETs cannot be connected together in any way, other than =
sharing=20
a common control drive circuit such as a dual optocoupler or miniature =
double=20
pole relay.=20
In addition, the MOSFETs used need to have a very low RDS =
(on) , or=20
multiple smaller units used. The lower the value of drain-source =
resistance, the=20
lower he distortion contributed by the circuit. Note that each MOSFET's =
voltage=20
should be rated for at least 25% more than the supply rails of the =
amplifier=20
with no load. This is due to the way the circuit works, and because of =
the=20
possibility of instantaneous back-EMF from the speaker coil when the DC =
fault=20
current is suddenly interrupted. It may be useful to include a MOV =
(metal oxide=20
varistor) across the SSR switch terminals, or use a capacitor 'snubber' =
to=20
prevent the likelihood of any destructive voltage spike. The latter is =
shown in=20
Figure 2, along with a pair of 'catch' diodes (D2 and D3) that connect =
to the=20
amp's supply rails. (Note that the diodes are also included in other =
drawings,=20
as it is very important that they be included.)=20
When MOSFETs fail, they almost invariably fail short-circuit (like =
most=20
semiconductors), and it is conceivable that a failure could go entirely=20
unnoticed until your speaker catches on fire. It is essential to make =
sure that=20
failure is rendered highly unlikely, or that some kind of test process =
be=20
incorporated (which adds further complexity of course). Quite obviously, =
a=20
conventional relay can fail too, but they are generally extremely =
reliable and=20
have no sensitive electronic bits in them.
Figure 2 - Basic MOSFET Relay
What we need to activate the MOSFET relay is a floating DC source. It =
must be=20
electrically isolated from the amplifier's speaker output (and with high =
impedance) or it will either be damaged by the amp, or will damage the =
amp. For=20
simplicity, the DC source is shown as a 9V battery (discussed further =
below).=20
Then the DC is connected and disconnected as needed to switch the relay =
on and=20
off (shown above by a switch). There are any number of different ways to =
implement the switching function, ranging from miniature relays, =
opto-isolators=20
(either LED + LDR or LED + photo transistor) or by remotely turning the =
gate=20
supply on and off by some means. The zener is used to ensure that the =
voltage is=20
kept below that which may damage the gate's sensitive insulation. =20
As noted above, the MOSFET voltage rating needs to be at least 20% =
more than=20
the supply voltage. If you have =B1100V supplies, the MOSFETs should be =
rated for=20
at least 120V, as this provides a comfortable safety margin. You can add =
resistors in parallel with each MOSFET, which reduces the effects of =
stray=20
capacitance and ensures that your safety margin is maintained. 100k is a =
good=20
place to start, but this isn't strictly necessary (especially with the =
relay=20
circuit shown in Figures 7 and 8). The likelihood of excessive voltage =
is most=20
likely with the 'charge coupled' circuit in Figure 6.=20
Capacitance from the speaker output to earth must also be minimised, =
or there=20
is a risk that the amp may oscillate. Ideally the floating supply should =
be=20
isolated from any stray capacitance by series resistors. These damp the =
effect=20
of the capacitance and render it harmless. Where an output coil is =
fitted to=20
isolate the amp from speaker cables and other stray capacitance, the SSR =
should=20
be between the coil and speaker terminal - never between the amp and =
coil.=20
Note that the MOSFET switch is completely bidirectional, and although =
it may=20
seem that it must introduce considerable distortion, this is actually =
not the=20
case. When the switch is closed and the MOSFETs are biased on, the only =
voltage=20
that appears across the pair is due to their on resistance (RDS=20
(on) ). With suitable devices, this resistance is very low and =
reasonably=20
linear. Linearity is not as good when the 'switch' is off, but that's of =
little=20
consequence. Bear in mind that any series resistance reduces damping =
factor, so=20
if you happen to think that very high values are essential, you may be=20
disinclined to add a circuit that adds resistance. =20
The choice of suitable MOSFETs is huge - so much so that I'll only =
attempt a=20
couple of types for consideration. A popular and inexpensive part is the =
IRF540N. It's rated at 33A with a voltage rating of 100V, so it can be =
used with=20
supply voltages up to about =B170V. Another worth considering is the =
IRFP240, 200V=20
and 20A. RDS (on) is higher than desirable, but 2 or more can =
be=20
paralleled to reduce that. There are many others, and I leave it to the =
reader=20
to find a device that suits the purpose and the budget. =20
I've shown IRF540N devices in the circuits, but that's only a =
suggestion.=20
RDS (on) is quoted as 44mΩ for these MOSFETs, so the =
total series=20
resistance will be 88mΩ, or 0.088 ohm. With an amp current of (say) =
20A peak,=20
there will be a loss of 1.76V peak (1.25V RMS) across the relay, and a =
total=20
power dissipation of less than 150mW.=20
Note that while it would be very convenient (and easy) to use a =
battery as=20
shown in Figure 2, that would be a really bad idea. Even though the =
MOSFET gates=20
require minimal current, the battery will eventually discharge to the =
point=20
where a significant voltage will appear across the MOSFETs because they =
are not=20
switched on hard enough, and this will cause severe overheating and =
gross=20
distortion. As an example, the circuit shown above has a distortion of =
0.013%=20
with 28V AC applied (a 100W/ 8 ohm amp at full power). =20
Should the MOSFET gate bias voltage be reduced to 5V, the maximum =
output is=20
dramatically reduced, and distortion becomes excessive at any level =
above around=20
50-60W. In addition, the MOSFETs will overheat badly, because normally =
they only=20
need a very modest heatsink (if any at all). Once there is a significant =
voltage=20
across them and they are passing current, they will dissipate power. =20
Having ruled out using a couple of 9V batteries (at least from a =
purely=20
practical perspective), we have to find an alternative solution to =
provide the=20
necessary voltage needed to switch the MOSFETs on. Switching them off is =
easy -=20
just take away the voltage. Some of the options are as follows in the =
next=20
sections.=20
Note that if you use a cap across the relay terminals as shown, there =
will be=20
a small signal current that will be audible with high sensitivity =
speakers.=20
Provided the 'clamp' diodes are used, the cap can be omitted, or you can =
use a=20
MOV for protection. If used, the MOV must have an RMS voltage rating =
that is=20
less than the rated breakdown voltage of the MOSFETs, but =
greater =20
than the amplifier's RMS output voltage. Given that MOV devices have a =
rather=20
broad tolerance and are only available with a limited range of voltages, =
this=20
makes selection rather difficult.
2 Photo-Voltaic Opto-Couplers =20
Several manufacturers make photo-voltaic MOSFET drivers that seem =
ideal (they=20
use an infra-red LED and a bank of photovoltaic-diodes or tiny "solar =
cells" to=20
generate the gate voltage) [2 ]. =
While they can be obtained fairly cheaply (less than $10 if you find a=20
supplier), a few problems exist. They are ...=20
Not readily available from most normal suppliers, or the range is =
very=20
limited =20
Limited to relatively low gate drive voltage (some, but not all - =
this=20
relates to the limited available range noted above) =20
Painfully slow because of very limited output current, although =
some are=20
better than others (and cost more).
The final issue is the one that is likely to cause some grief, =
because most=20
have an output current that's less than 100uA, with some below 10uA. =
This means=20
that the MOSFETs cannot be switched quickly (on or off), so peak power=20
dissipation may be unacceptably high during switching. Remember that all =
MOSFETs=20
have a gate-source capacitance that must be charged and discharged when =
the=20
MOSFET is switched on and off. Although this must be considered, it is =
still=20
possible to get switching times in the order of a few milliseconds, and =
this=20
will generally be considered acceptable.=20
Figure 3 - Photo-Voltaic MOSFET Driver
The arrangement shown above is fairly typical of the general scheme, =
and will=20
work very well provided the optimum photovoltaic optocoupler can be =
found at a=20
sensible price. Ideally, you will need a photovoltaic opto that can =
provide at=20
least 50uA or switching times become embarrassingly slow. In some data =
sheets=20
(and included above) you will see a JFET used to speed up the MOSFET's =
gate=20
discharge and turn-off time. As shown, turn-off is almost instantaneous. =
This arrangement can also be seen if you have a look at the Vishay =
VO1263AB=20
data sheet, but they use a P-Channel JFET. It is pretty much mandatory =
to=20
include the JFET if you choose to use the photovoltaic isolator circuit, =
unless=20
you use the circuit shown in Figure=20
9 . In other circuits you might come across, a high value resistor =
(~10MΩ) is=20
placed across the isolator's output, but this has a much longer =
turn-off=20
time (perhaps 100ms or even more, depending on MOSFET gate-source =
capacitance).=20
This will almost certainly cause excessive peak dissipation in the =
MOSFETs and=20
lead to failure.=20
The opto's LED typically needs to be driven with around 10-50mA to =
work,=20
depending on the device used. This current is easily supplied by the =
speaker DC=20
detector circuit. Project=20
33 can do the job easily.=20
In case you are wondering, the JFET circuit shorts the MOSFET gate to =
source=20
when there is no current from the opto. When the opto is active =
(supplying=20
current), a voltage is developed across R2 that biases the JFET off, so =
it does=20
not draw any current. With 50uA and a 2.2M resistor, the JFET is biased =
fully=20
off. Because of the wide parameter spread of JFETs and photovoltaic =
isolators,=20
you may need to experiment with the value of R2 to ensure reliable =
switching.=20
It is important to understand that there will be some voltage drop =
across R2,=20
sufficient to bias the JFET off. This voltage is unavailable to the =
gates of the=20
MOSFETs, so the already limited voltage from the coupler is reduced a =
little=20
more. This may be enough to not allow the MOSFETs to conduct fully, a =
highly=20
undesirable outcome. The extra resistance also means that the MOSFETs =
turn on=20
slower than they otherwise would. The difference is not great, but is =
easily=20
measured.
3 Transformer Drive =20
Using a small transformer is a good solution, and it only requires a =
simple=20
rectifier and minimal filtering to drive the MOSFET gate. Since the =
transformer=20
can easily supply 10mA or more, switching times are dramatically =
reduced.=20
Unfortunately, a transformer coupled circuit also needs a driver circuit =
to=20
provide a signal at the secondary (or secondaries). This should operate =
at 50kHz=20
or more to minimise the size of the transformer(s). Not really a =
problem, but=20
there's more circuitry needed which takes up potentially valuable =
space.
Figure 4 - Transformer Based MOSFET Driver
An example is shown above (just one of a great many possibilities), =
based in=20
part on the original patent [1 ], =
but somewhat simplified. While it's not overly complex, there are =
nuisance=20
issues like finding a suitable transformer that have to be solved. It =
will=20
generally be easier to find single secondary winding transformers, so =
two will=20
have to be used for a stereo system. If a single transformer with dual=20
secondaries is used for a stereo amp, the insulation between the primary =
and=20
also between both secondaries has to be able to withstand the full =
amplifier=20
supply voltage. This means that if the amp uses =B160V supplies, the =
insulation=20
has to be rated for at least 120V. It would be wise to ensure that all=20
inter-winding insulation is rated for a minimum of 500V.=20
The drive signal typically needs to be a squarewave of no less than =
15V=20
peak-peak. The advantage of using a voltage doubler is that there is a =
small=20
parts saving - the caps that form part of the doubler also smooth the =
DC.=20
Without the doubler, either the drive voltage has to be increased or the =
transformers have to be step-up types to obtain enough gate voltage.=20
Note that the diodes (D1 and D2) must be high speed types, preferably =
Schottky or at least 'ultra-fast' types. Normal diodes are far too slow =
and will=20
cause very high losses in the rectifier - so much so that it may not =
even work.=20
The drive oscillator can be almost anything you like, but as noted on =
the=20
circuit diagram above, you need at least 15V P-P drive voltage, at a =
frequency=20
of around 50kHz. Current is fairly low at 45mA RMS for a transformer =
with 500uH=20
primary inductance. Depending on the transformer you use, the current =
may be=20
somewhat higher. There is no point trying to specify particular cores =
and=20
formers, as their availability is highly variable - parts I can get here =
may be=20
unavailable elsewhere and vice-versa.=20
Figure 5 - Typical Oscillator
The oscillator shown above is the simplest possible arrangement using =
a 555=20
timer, but is perfect for this application. The output signal is close =
to a=20
squarewave, and any small variation in duty cycle is handled by the =
capacitor=20
feeding the transformer. This prevents any DC magnetic flux build-up =
that may=20
cause the transformer to saturate. There are countless other oscillator =
designs=20
that will also work, but few that are quite as simple as the one shown.=20
When the CTRL line is open circuit or high, the oscillator runs, and =
gate=20
voltage is available to the MOSFET relay which turns on. When the CTRL =
line is=20
pulled low, the oscillator stops and the MOSFETs also turn off once the =
gate=20
caps discharge. It is possible to incorporate additional circuitry to =
ensure the=20
relay turns off very quickly, but in reality anything up to a few =
milliseconds=20
will be alright in most cases. A simulation tells me that as shown, it =
will=20
switch off in under 1ms.=20
You may also be able to use small 'output' transformers intended for =
low=20
power transistor amplifiers (portable radios for example). These provide =
another=20
option - just use the core and bobbin. Remove the existing primary and=20
secondary, and wind new ones by hand. The inter-winding insulation =
layers can=20
easily be improved to suit the new requirements. We are not overly =
concerned=20
with efficiency, because the power needed is negligible. Unless you have =
access=20
to small ferrite cores, this is likely to be the cheapest option.=20
As an alternative to using discrete circuits, it is also possible to =
use=20
miniature DC-DC converters to provide both isolation and gate drive. =
This is a=20
more expensive option though, since most of these small converters are =
at least=20
$15 each, even in quantity. You will have to use transistor output =
optoisolators=20
if you use any kind of power supply module, or it will take far too long =
for the=20
voltage to fall to the point where the MOSFETs turn off.
4 Capacitive Drive =20
There is the option of doing away with the transformer(s), and simply =
using=20
low value capacitors to couple a high frequency AC signal to a rectifier =
circuit=20
that then drives the MOSFET gates [3 ]. =
This arrangement is also known as a 'charge-coupled' circuit, and can =
use the=20
same oscillator as shown above. Although the data sheet says that a 555 =
timer=20
can operate at a maximum frequency of around 500kHz, I wouldn't be happy =
with it=20
running that fast. Up to 250kHz should be fairly safe though.=20
Figure 6 - Capacitive-Coupled MOSFET Driver
Like the transformer solution, an oscillator at 50kHz or more is =
needed, and=20
the coupling caps are so small that they will pass very little signal in =
the=20
audio range. At the high switching frequency, the caps are almost a=20
short-circuit, and can fully charge the gate driver within a couple of=20
milliseconds. Current is quite low though, depending on the switching =
speed and=20
capacitor value. High speed Schottky diodes are essential, as I would =
normally=20
expect that switching frequencies well in excess of 100kHz be used. In =
the=20
circuit shown above, the circuit can supply around 300uA, but can still =
switch=20
MOSFETs on or off in a few milliseconds. The capacitors used should be =
rated for=20
at least 600V DC.=20
The primary disadvantage of using capacitive drive is that the amp's =
output=20
must be limited to no more than perhaps 25kHz or so. Should the amp =
decide to=20
oscillate, there is a real chance that the capacitive driver circuits =
will be=20
damaged. This will happen if any amplifier output frequency (intended or =
accidental) is high enough to pass a signal back from the speaker line =
to the=20
driver circuit.=20
In addition, the voltage across C2 increases with increased amp =
output=20
frequency, because the caps (especially C1) pass some of the signal and =
this=20
assists the charging process. The only way to avoid this is to use a =
higher=20
oscillator frequency and a smaller value for C1 and C3. For example, =
with an=20
oscillator frequency of 500kHz and C1 and C3 reduced to 470pF, an =
amplifier=20
signal of 25kHz at full power causes no increase in the normal voltage =
developed=20
across C2. Also note that although the RMS drive current is only around =
5mA, the=20
peak value is over 30mA with the values shown.=20
Switching times are passable. While turn-on is quite fast at about =
1ms,=20
turn-off is rather lethargic - it takes just over 3ms for the MOSFETs to =
turn=20
off with the values shown, so dissipation under fault conditions will be =
rather=20
high. Although turn-off time can be improved by reducing the value of =
R3, this=20
demands a higher drive signal (either higher voltage or frequency).=20
For the reasons described above, I do not consider this a usable =
approach for=20
an audio amplifier. There are too many factors that make it unsuitable. =
It can=20
be used for switching mains (50/60Hz) without any problems though.
5 Stand-Alone Floating Power Supplies =20
The final option is to use conventional small power supplies that can =
have=20
their outputs fully floating. A small transformer with dual secondaries =
is one=20
possibility, but there is a real risk that the insulation between =
windings will=20
be unable to withstand the output voltage swing from powerful stereo =
amplifiers.=20
When doing some initial tests, I used a 12V DC switchmode plug-pack (aka =
'wall-wart') as the voltage source (it's actually built-in as part of my =
workbench system, but that's irrelevant).=20
A small 50/60Hz transformer with dual windings can be used, having a=20
conventional rectifier and filter cap on each output. As with the =
transformer=20
drive approach, inter-secondary insulation has to be up to the task. =
This is=20
actually rather unlikely, so it's hard to recommend this approach - it's =
much=20
safer to use two transformers, but that gets bulky and rather costly. =
The DC to=20
the MOSFET gates is simply switched using optocouplers with transistor =
outputs=20
as demonstrated in Figure 7. =20
This kind of approach certainly works, but the cost and space is such =
that=20
you'd be a lot better off financially by using miniature DC-DC =
converters. It's=20
hard to recommend the use of separate mains powered supplies as it is =
somewhat=20
clumsy, physically large and comparatively expensive. However, it does =
offer a=20
simple and easily implemented solution, with the minimum number of =
electronic=20
bits to fail.
6 Power Rail Supply =20
This arrangement perhaps doesn't really look like it could work, but =
that's=20
an illusion. By taking a diode blocked resistive feed from the positive =
supply,=20
the DC is stored in C1 and because of the high impedances will hold up =
well even=20
at low frequencies. C1 can't discharge back through the resistor when =
the=20
amplifier's output voltage swings fully positive because the diode =
prevents=20
this. Note that there is some modulation of the supply, but this =
is=20
smoothed by the zener as it simultaneously protects the MOSFET gates. =
The zener=20
is absolutely essential in this arrangement (but should always be used =
anyway),=20
because without it the voltage can rise to the full DC supply - gate =
destruction=20
is a certainty. R4 is optional but recommended. The cap will charge =
whether it's=20
there or not, as long as the amplifier or speaker remains connected (the =
MOSFETs' internal diodes provide the current path).=20
Figure 7 - Supply Rail Gate Bias
As shown, the supply resistor (R2) does provide a small DC offset =
current to=20
the speaker when the SSR is turned off, but at less than 2mA with 60 =
volt=20
supplies it can be ignored. This is by far the simplest way to obtain =
the=20
necessary DC to keep the MOSFETs turned on. To switch them off, you may =
use an=20
opto-coupler as shown, or even a small relay can be used. Note that R2 =
and R4=20
are suitable for supply voltages up to around =B150V. Higher values will =
be needed=20
if the amp uses higher voltage supply rails. R4 can be connected to the =
-ve=20
supply instead of earth if desired, but there's little point - the =
circuit won't=20
work any better by doing so.=20
This circuit has the advantage of great simplicity compared to the =
other=20
methods described. There is no need for an oscillator or transformers, =
no=20
rectifiers or high speed diodes, and no side issues with high =
frequencies.=20
Because of the continuous supply and use of an optocoupler, the turn-off =
time is=20
also very fast. Turn-on speed is determined by the value of R3 and the =
MOSFET=20
gate-source capacitance. We don't need sub microsecond switching, and in =
most=20
cases the values shown will be more than acceptable.=20
It's also worth noting that the circuit doesn't actually have to be =
powered=20
from the amp's supply rail. Any positive voltage source of 15V or =
greater is=20
enough to allow the relay to turn on and remain on until the =
optoisolator turns=20
it off again. It may be helpful if R2 is reduced to suit the lower =
voltage -=20
about 22k is fine, but you might need to experiment a little. The second =
'feed'=20
resistor (R4) should be the same value. You may need to use 1W resistors =
with=20
high power amps.
Note, however, that there are contra-indications to this =
technique.=20
When used as shown and in the 'off' state, there is a small =
charging=20
current that is rectified by the diode D1 and the MOSFET's =
intrinsic=20
internal diode. When the cap is used in parallel, this tends to =
swamp the=20
very small but highly distorted leakage current that flows each =
time the=20
diodes conduct. While R2 (the bias feed resistor) does reduce the =
noise,=20
you will hear a low-level distorted signal across the speaker - =
especially=20
if the circuit is connected as shown in Figure 8. The capacitor =
(C2) tends=20
to swamp this to a degree, but that allows even more signal to =
pass.=20
None of the above affects the relay's ability to disconnect the =
speaker=20
if DC is detected, but is something you need to be aware of. The=20
distortion component of the muted signal is especially audible if =
you=20
choose to use a feed voltage that's less than the full amplifier =
supply=20
voltage, and you have very sensitive speakers such as horn =
compression=20
drivers. For this reason, the MOSFET relay is not really suitable =
as a=20
signal mute - this should be done at the amp's input or from the =
mixing=20
desk.
BEWARE! - the relay's default state is ON! The external circuitry =
turns the=20
relay off, but if the supply to the detection circuit is not present=20
before the amplifier supply rails start to rise, DC can be fed to =
the=20
speaker until such time as the detection circuits function and =
disconnect the=20
load. This is easily circumvented by some additional circuitry or by =
leaving the=20
detector permanently powered ... with the proviso that the amp =
cannot be=20
turned on at all if the relay supply is not present!=20
For example, you could use P39 (soft start circuit), and use its power supply =
to power=20
the detector (such as P33 =20
which powers the optocoupler), as well as the soft start. While this =
adds some=20
complication, a high power amp needs soft start anyway, so it's not =
necessarily=20
a big deal.
7 MOSFET Relay In Speaker Return =20
It is possible to design the overall circuit so that the power supply =
constraints are reduced. Instead of placing the MOSFET relay in series =
with the=20
amp's speaker output, simply connect it between the speaker common =
terminal=20
(normally PSU earth/ ground) and the actual PSU earth bus. Now the =
entire=20
circuit has one terminal that is earth referenced, which reduces the =
isolation=20
requirements between the separate power supplies. However, when switched =
off,=20
the centre-tap between the two MOSFETs can easily reach a voltage that =
still=20
demands good insulation of any floating supply (roughly 1/2 the +ve =
supply=20
voltage). The diode shown in Figure 7 (in series with R2) is not needed =
in the=20
earth-referenced circuit shown below, because C1 cannot discharge when =
the amp's=20
output swings positive - the junction between MOSFETs is at (close to) =
zero=20
volts when the MOSFET relay is on.
Figure 8 - MOSFET Relay Circuit In Earth Line
Needless to say, this method cannot be used with BTL (bridge tied =
load) amps=20
regardless of bias supply type, because each side of the speaker is =
driven by a=20
separate amplifier driven 180=B0 out-of-phase with the other. Both =
speaker=20
terminals are therefore 'live' with the amplified signal, so a fully =
floating=20
system is definitely required. Even if you do decide to connect your =
MOSFET=20
relay in the earth end of the speaker (i.e. the speaker return), I still =
recommend that the power supplies are properly isolated or you may have=20
unforeseen problems (assuming that you use one of the other methods =
shown, not=20
the one in Figure 8). I don't know what they might be, because they =
are =20
unforeseen =20
Another potential issue is the added resistance in the speaker line, =
and that=20
will reduce 'damping factor' (assuming that you consider it to be =
important) and=20
output power. Any voltage and current combination that appears across/ =
through=20
the MOSFETs also causes heating. For these reasons, using MOSFETs with a =
very=20
low RDS (on) is essential. The lower this resistance, the =
less=20
distortion the circuit contributes as well.=20
It is possible to use a conventional relay in parallel with the =
MOSFET relay,=20
so that there is no added series resistance. In the case of a fault, the =
relay=20
must open first, followed by the MOSFET relay. This process will add an=20
inevitable delay, because you must allow sufficient time to allow the=20
electromechanical relay to be fully open before the MOSFET relay opens. =
The=20
control system will also be far more complex, with more things to go =
wrong.=20
It is also very important to ensure that the capacitance of the power =
supply=20
(when connected in the 'live' speaker line) does not impose enough =
capacitance=20
to cause the amplifier to oscillate. Most amps get very upset if the =
output sees=20
around 10-100nF directly to earth, so consider including 100 ohm =
resistors in=20
series with the power supply as shown in Figure 4.=20
Based on simulations and some tests, distortion can be expected to be =
well=20
below 0.1% unless you don't have enough gate voltage or RDS =
(on) is=20
too high. Remember that there are two sets of RDS (on) in =
series with=20
the speaker, so maintaining a very low figure for each MOSFET is =
essential. It=20
may be necessary to use two or more MOSFETs in parallel on each side of =
the=20
switch to keep the insertion loss as low as possible. For a high power =
amp, even=20
0.1 ohm represents a significant power loss, and that power is turned =
into heat=20
in the MOSFETs. Any increase in temperature further increases RDS=20
(on) , causing higher losses and more heat. Thermal runaway is =
possible if=20
the MOSFETs are not sized correctly.
8 Final Approach =20
The solution that you eventually use will be determined by a number =
of=20
factors, including space, cost and switching speed. As always, there are =
trade-offs that must be made in any design to get a final circuit that =
does=20
what's required, but doesn't compromise the internal layout or add =
excessive=20
cost and complexity.=20
Photovoltaic optoisolators are a good solution, but the JFET (or the =
scheme=20
shown in Figure 9) is mandatory to ensure fast turn-off times. The =
greatest=20
obstacles you will face with this technique are cost and availability of =
suitable photovoltaic devices. There's a wide range available, but some =
will=20
struggle to provide enough voltage to ensure the lowest possible =
RDS=20
(on) . Others have very limited current - perhaps 20uA or less. =
These will=20
have rather long turn-on times, but that's not a major limitation - =
simply mute=20
the amp's input until the MOSFET relay is turned on.=20
A transformer coupled system that uses squarewave drive needs very =
little=20
capacitance after the rectifier to get a clean DC switching waveform. =
This means=20
that turn-on/ off times can be quite respectable, without having to =
resort to=20
using opto-couplers. Once the oscillator is stopped, the relay will =
switch off=20
within a millisecond or so.=20
The high frequency transformer drive arrangement is also fairly=20
straightforward, and will probably work out cheaper than using =
photovoltaic=20
isolators. You can almost certainly make your own transformer quite =
easily - at=20
50kHz or so you don't need many turns, so it can be wound by hand. =
Naturally,=20
the secondaries must be insulated to a standard that suits the amp's =
output=20
voltage - both from the primary and each other. Another possible source =
of=20
suitable small transformers is to use those tiny transistor output =
transformers=20
that most electronics suppliers sell. Although they are extremely basic, =
some=20
suppliers ask rather silly prices for them (up to $5-6 each). While they =
are=20
basically rubbish in terms of audio quality, that's the least of your =
concerns=20
when they are driven with a 50kHz squarewave .=20
Their insulation may not be appropriate for a high power amp though, and =
this=20
would need to be tested.=20
As noted earlier, I cannot recommend the charge coupled driver for =
use in an=20
audio amp. It may be suitable for switching mains ... in which case the =
coupling=20
caps (C1 and C3) must be Y-Class intrinsically safe. All =
circuitry must=20
have the required creepage and clearance distances for separation of =
hazardous=20
voltage from your control electronics.=20
Using separate DC supplies (whether via a mains transformer or =
miniature=20
DC-DC converters) is expensive and rather clumsy. It's hard to recommend =
this=20
approach, but it may be required for some less pedestrian uses for a =
MOSFET=20
relay. Since isolated switchmode DC-DC converters are available with =
over 1kV=20
isolation, the technique is suitable for switching mains, provided =
transistor=20
output optoisolators are used for MOSFET control.=20
If you do use floating fixed supplies, you need to decide whether to =
switch=20
the supply on and off to control your relay, or leave the supply running =
and use=20
an optocoupler to control the gate voltage. The opto approach has a =
definite=20
advantage in speed - it's easy to achieve sub-millisecond switching =
times, but=20
at the expense of additional components. Switching the power supply on =
and off=20
can result in MOSFET switch-off times of 10s or even 100s of =
milliseconds!=20
In terms of ultimate simplicity, the supply rail bias scheme wins =
hands down=20
for power amplifiers. No oscillators or transformers, and very few =
parts, so=20
there's not much to go wrong. Standard transistor output optocouplers =
are cheap=20
and readily available, and the most expensive part of the system is the =
MOSFETs.=20
This is the scheme that I would probably use, provided that the speaker =
relay=20
isn't used for muting. It's unlikely that any alternative scheme can =
come close=20
for overall cost and lack of complexity.=20
It is important to understand that it does cause a distorted signal =
to be=20
produced across the speaker when turned off (especially when connected =
in the=20
earth lead of the speaker oddly enough). This is of no consequence if =
the only=20
goal is speaker protection, and it is by far the easiest to implement. =
If full=20
muting is needed, you will need to use one of the other schemes. The =
circuit=20
must also introduce a small amount of distortion when turned on, because =
the=20
diodes still go into and out of conduction as the signal voltage varies. =
However, the amount of distortion is very low indeed, and is unlikely to =
be=20
audible at any level. While I have attempted to test for this, I was =
unable to=20
measure the distortion, but of course that doesn't mean it's not there.=20
It used to be quite common for power amplifiers to have meters on the =
front=20
panel to show the power level. These also used diodes driven from the =
amp's=20
output, and therefore introduced some non-linearity. As far as I'm =
aware, no-one=20
ever heard the distortion created, and I expect much the same with the =
circuits=20
shown.=20
The circuit shown below has none of the limitations of the other =
schemes, but=20
is comparatively expensive because of the two optocouplers. This is =
really a=20
'cost-no-object' approach, having only one limitation - the MOSFET =
turn-on time.=20
This can only be made faster by having a low impedance supply for the =
gates,=20
something you can't get with photovoltaic isolators.
=20
Figure 9 - Composite MOSFET Relay Using Dual =
Optocouplers
The arrangement shown above has many things to recommend it. Unlike =
the=20
circuit shown in Figure 3, there is no series resistance and no JFET =
that must=20
draw a tiny amount of current, thus reducing the available gate voltage =
and the=20
resistor further limits the gate charge current. When the photovoltaic=20
optocoupler is active, the transistor output opto is turned off, and all =
the=20
available voltage from U2 is presented to the gates of the MOSFETs. When =
the=20
input signal switches from 5V (MOSFETs on) to 0V (MOSFETs off), U1's =
output=20
transistor shorts the MOSFET gates to the sources, ensuring fast =
turn-off.=20
The drive system is shown using 5V, but it can really be any voltage =
you have=20
handy. It's just a matter of scaling R1 and R2 to get the right current =
into the=20
opto's LEDs from the supply you have available. You may need to use =
higher=20
voltage transistors if you want to use a voltage of over 25V or so.=20
Of course, disconnecting the speaker is not the only option. You can =
also use=20
MOSFETs to switch off the amplifier's power rails when a fault is =
detected [4 ], =
however=20
the circuit must latch so that the protection system doesn't =
cycle. This=20
approach also has the limitation that you can't detect the fault before =
the=20
speakers are connected, since the amplifier(s) need power to trip the =
protection=20
circuits, so speakers will thump loudly when the amp is turned on.
9 MOSFET Relays In Other Applications =20
Although I have shown the various circuits here as speaker relays, =
needless=20
to say this is only one of many applications. When switching DC loads, =
the=20
schemes described here are not needed because the polarity will be known =
(so=20
only a single MOSFET is needed), and for mains AC it's generally easier =
to use a=20
TRIAC or a conventional relay.=20
There are applications for the MOSFET relay in AC mains circuits =
though -=20
trailing-edge light dimmers being one. In addition, if used with AC it =
is=20
possible to use the relay to limit inrush current by turning on the =
MOSFETs=20
relatively slowly. This may be hard to recommend though, because =
dissipation=20
will be high and even a small asymmetry can cause an effective DC =
component that=20
will cause serious problems for motors and transformers.=20
The number of applications is almost unlimited, but I confess that I =
can't=20
think of many that haven't been covered already. Low current SSRs can be =
used=20
for audio signal switching, and they are not particularly expensive. =
While this=20
method of switching would satisfy most consumer audio requirements, it =
is=20
probable that most people who love to build hi-fi equipment would frown =
upon the=20
idea of active switches. CMOS active analogue switches already exist, =
but it's=20
rare to find them in the audio path of any hi-fi equipment.=20
Even when switching high power circuits, there is usually no good =
reason to=20
add the extra complexity. In general it's far easier to use a more =
conventional=20
approach - traditional relays, TRIAC solid state relays, etc. However, =
it's also=20
important to know about other techniques that might just prove to be the =
perfect=20
answer to a problem that appeared to be insoluble.
Conclusion =20
While the MOSFET relay has some significant advantages over and above =
a=20
traditional electro-mechanical relay, these advantages come at a cost. =
The=20
MOSFET relay will be physically larger than a conventional relay, and =
the=20
overall circuitry is more complex and costly. Where a relay can be glued =
into=20
place on the rear panel of an amp, the MOSFET version requires at least =
one=20
printed circuit board, as well as more wiring. While it will survive a =
DC fault=20
in the amp (possibly many times over), DC faults are uncommon in well =
designed=20
amps, used properly, and with good heatsinks.=20
To obtain complete isolation (full muting), you have to forego the =
parallel=20
capacitor, and use a MOV and/or 'catch' diodes on the speaker side of =
the relay.=20
With the cap shown in the above examples, there is a small 'leakage' =
current via=20
the cap, and if the relay is used to mute the speaker output, a =
low-level signal=20
is audible with sensitive speakers. Also, note the comments for my =
simplified=20
'supply rail powered' version - ignore this at your peril.=20
Yes, a conventional relay will be a real mess after the DC arc has =
been=20
shorted to earth, and the relay should always be replaced if the amp has =
failed=20
DC. However, the relay is cheap, easily replaced and you never have to =
worry too=20
much about a multiplicity of electronic parts that can also fail, =
rendering the=20
amp unserviceable even if there's no other fault. Contact resistance is=20
sufficiently low as to ensure minimal power loss (if any), and =
distortion should=20
be somewhere between zero and negligible if you have good contact =
materials and=20
no oxidation. Once driven to power, any oxidation will be burnt away =
anyway - it=20
is extremely uncommon for anyone to suffer from audible distortion =
caused by=20
relays.=20
The MOSFET relay will survive countless DC faults, but this should =
never=20
happen. All the additional complexity and cost is essentially wasted, =
with the=20
exception of very high power amplifiers. It is extremely hard to find =
any relays=20
that can break 100V DC at 25A or more - they exist, but are large and =
expensive.=20
In such cases, it is worth considering the use of a final level of =
protection -=20
a high power TRIAC that acts as a 'crowbar'. It protects the speaker by =
simply=20
shorting the amp's output to earth. The amp has already failed, so =
additional=20
damage is of little consequence because it will be limited when the fuse =
blows -=20
which it will do spectacularly.=20
The important thing is to ensure that an amplifier failure only means =
that=20
you have to repair the amp - not the speakers to which it's connected. =
In many=20
cases, the loudspeaker drivers can cost more than the amplifier.=20
Naturally though, the idea of building your own MOSFET relay should =
have some=20
appeal, just for the knowledge gained and the experience you'll get, not =
to=20
mention the fun factor. I leave it to the reader to decide which method =
to=20
explore and how much fun they should have doing so.
References =20
Solid State Relay Employing MOSFET Power Switching Devices, US =
Patent=20
4,438,356 - 20 March 1984 =20
Dionics DIG-1115-SM Photovoltaic MOSFET / IGBT Driver =20
Charge-Coupled MOSFET Relay - David Johnson and Associates =20
A=20
DC Fault Protection Circuit for Audio Amplifiers
I also looked at a great many suggestions, websites and application =
notes -=20
some good, some decidedly otherwise. The references shown above are =
intended as=20
representative, and the same or similar information can be found =
elsewhere. A=20
search is always a good place to start, but you need to know just what =
to look=20
for in any circuit you may find. While some ideas seem ok on the =
surface, that's=20
because the potential shortfalls haven't been mentioned (or =
addressed).
=20
Main Index Articles Index
Copyright Notice. =
This=20
article, including but not limited to all text and diagrams, is =
the=20
intellectual property of Rod Elliott, and is Copyright =A9 2012.=20
Reproduction or re-publication by any means whatsoever, whether=20
electronic, mechanical or electro-mechanical, is strictly =
prohibited under=20
International Copyright laws. The author (Rod Elliott) grants the =
reader=20
the right to use this information for personal use only, and =
further allow=20
that one (1) copy may be made for reference. Commercial use is =
prohibited=20
without express written authorisation from Rod=20
Elliott.
Published 09 June 2012
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#e5e5e5;color:#000!important;text-decoration:none}.ipad #at_hover =
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#at_hover .at_item{border:1px solid #fff}* html #at_hover =
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#e5e5e5!important;margin:1px!important}#at_email15{padding-top:5px}.at15e=
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iframe.fb_iframe_widget_lift{max-width:none}.addthis_toolbox =
span.addthis_follow_label{display:none}.addthis_toolbox.addthis_vertical_=
style =
span.addthis_follow_label{display:block;white-space:nowrap}.addthis_toolb=
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a{display:block}.addthis_toolbox.addthis_vertical_style.addthis_32x32_sty=
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.addthis_separator{margin:0 =
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.at300m{padding:0 =
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div.at_litem{margin-right:0}#at_feed a{margin:10px =
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solid =
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auto;font-size:10px!important;color:#4c4c4c;padding:0;z-index:10000001;ov=
erflow:visible}#at16pccImg{height:100%}* html =
#at16pcc{position:absolute}#at16abifc{overflow:hidden;margin:0;top:10px;l=
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iframe{border:0;position:absolute;height:380px;width:516px;top:-10px;left=
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iframe{height:23pc;left:-10px;top:-10px;overflow:hidden}#at16p{background=
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dding:10px;margin:0 =
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lign:left;border:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:0}#at16pi =
a{text-decoration:none;color:#36b}#at16p =
#at16abc{margin-left:2px!important}#at16pi =
a:hover{text-decoration:underline}#at16pt{position:relative;background:#f=
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h4{font-weight:700}#at16pt =
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a{position:absolute;top:5px;right:10px;color:#4c4c4c;text-decoration:none=
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form{margin:0}#at16pc form =
label{display:block;font-size:11px;font-weight:700;padding-bottom:4px;flo=
at:none;text-align:left}#at16pc form label =
span{font-weight:400;color:#4c4c4c;display:inline}#at_email form =
.abif{width:17pc!important}#at_email =
textarea{height:55px!important;word-wrap:break-word}* html #at_email =
textarea,:first-child+html #at_email =
textarea{height:42px!important}#at_email label{width:220px}#at_email =
input,#at_email textarea{background:#fff;border:1px solid =
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#b5b5b5;width:60px!important;padding:2px =
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.atbtn:hover,#at16recap .atbtn:focus,#at16recap =
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x 10px}#at16pc .tmsg{padding:4px =
2px;text-align:right}#at16psf{position:relative;background:#f2f2f2 =
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#ccc;height:20px;padding:4px 10px;text-align:center}* html #at16psf =
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input:focus{background:#fff;border:none;width:220px;margin:2px 0 =
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10px;color:#fff}#at16pcc =
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#a8e7b7;padding:5px =
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9pt;right:9pt;font-size:11px}#at16pp =
label{font-size:11px!important}#at16ppc{padding:10px;width:179px}#at16pph=
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a{display:block;height:1pc;line-height:1pc;padding-left:22px;margin-botto=
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a.at_gmail{background:url(data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhEAAQALMPAPKqo95TU=
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a.at_hotmail{background:url(data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhEAAQAMQfAP7XFG7=
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a.at_yahoo{background:url(data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhEAAQAKIHAPylpevx8=
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p#atsb{padding-top:20px;font-size:10px}#at16abr{margin-top:10px}#at16abr =
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#ccc;height:228px;width:178px;overflow:auto}#at16ppa =
a{display:block;white-space:nowrap;padding:4px =
8px;font-size:9pt!important}#at16eatdr{position:absolute;background:#fff;=
border-top:0;max-height:110px;overflow:auto;z-index:500;top:129px;left:21=
px;width:277px}* html #at_email #at16eatdr,:first-child+html #at_email =
#at16eatdr{top:115px!important;width:17pc!important}#at16eatdr =
a{display:block;overflow:hidden;border-bottom:1px dotted =
#eee;padding:4px 8px}#at16eatdr a.hover,#at16eatdr =
a:hover{background:#e0eefa;text-decoration:none;color:#333}#at_pspromo{he=
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#at_pspromo{height:150px}.atm-i #at_pspromo,.atm-i =
#at_testpromo{width:140px}#at_testpromo input{width:200px}#at_promo =
.at-promo-content,#at_testpromo =
.at-promo-content{margin-top:9pt}#at_promo .at-promo-btn,#at_testpromo =
.at-promo-btn{padding-top:10px}#at_promo h4,#at_testpromo =
h4{font-family:arial,helvetica,tahoma,verdana,sans-serif;background:0;fon=
t-size:14px;font-weight:700;margin:0 0 =
4px;padding:0;line-height:18px;height:36px}.atm-i #at_promo h4,.atm-i =
#at_testpromo h4{height:66px}#at_testpromo h4{font-size:13.5px}#at_promo =
h4 sup{font-size:11px;color:#ee6a44}#at_promo =
span{display:block}#_atssh{width:1px!important;height:1px!important;borde=
r:0!important}.at-promo-single{padding:10px;padding-top:2px;line-height:1=
.5em}.at-promo-single img{padding:3px}.at-promo-content =
img{margin-right:5px;margin-bottom:20px;float:left}.addthis_textshare{dis=
play:block;background:url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAA=
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